Castles

 

Contents:

Stone Castles In Britain.

List in Order of Construction All Stone Castles in Britain.

List in Order of Construction All Stone Castles in Europe.

List in order of Construction All Stone Castles in the Mediterranean and Middle East.

What is the First Stone Castle in the World?

When did people begin building Wooden Castles?

Map the spread of Wooden Castle Technology.

Map the spread of Stone Castle Technology.

The History and Development of Wooden and Stone Castles in the Orient.

The History of Castle Building in Africa and Egypt.

List in order of construction with dates all the castles in the world.

Stone Castles In Britain

The history of stone castles in Britain spans centuries, with many castles evolving over time from timber motte-and-bailey structures to formidable stone fortresses. While it is difficult to list all stone castles in Britain in chronological order due to incomplete records, here’s an outline based on significant and early examples:

Norman Conquest (1066 onwards)

The Normans introduced large-scale stone castle building to Britain after 1066. Some key examples:

1. Tower of London (White Tower) – Constructed starting in 1078 by William the Conqueror, this was one of the first and most iconic stone castles in England.

2. Pevensey Castle (East Sussex) – Originally a Roman fort, the Normans reused and modified it into a stone castle in the late 11th century.

3. Rochester Castle (Kent) – Its stone keep was constructed in the late 11th century under Bishop Gundulf, who was commissioned by William the Conqueror.

4. Durham Castle (Durham) – Begun in 1072 as a stone fortress to secure Norman control in the north.

5. Chepstow Castle (Wales) – Constructed in 1067 by William FitzOsbern, it was among the first stone castles built in Britain.

11th to 12th Century

Stone keeps became more common as defenses were improved:

6. Norwich Castle – Built by William the Conqueror, its stone keep dates to the late 11th century.

7. Colchester Castle (Essex) – Constructed in the late 11th century, it is one of the largest stone keeps in England.

8. Richmond Castle (North Yorkshire) – Begun in 1071 and largely built in stone by the mid-12th century.

9. Lincoln Castle – Started in 1068, with a stone keep completed by the mid-12th century.

12th Century Transition to Concentric Design

10. Dover Castle (Kent) – Originally a Roman fort and Saxon settlement, it was heavily reconstructed into a stone castle by Henry II starting in the 1180s.

11. Warkworth Castle (Northumberland) – Converted to stone in the mid-12th century.

13th Century and Edwardian Castles

Edward I’s campaigns in Wales introduced concentric castles, considered the pinnacle of medieval military architecture:

12. Caernarfon Castle (Wales) – Built from 1283 as part of Edward I’s domination of Wales.

13. Conwy Castle (Wales) – Another of Edward I’s masterpieces, constructed in 1283–1287.

14. Harlech Castle (Wales) – Built from 1283, using an innovative concentric design.

15. Beaumaris Castle (Wales) – Begun in 1295, considered a near-perfect concentric castle but never completed.

This progression reflects the evolution from simple stone keeps to complex fortifications. Many other castles were built or converted to stone during these centuries, but exact chronological lists are rare due to overlapping construction periods.

List In Order of Construction All Stone Castles in Britain 

Compiling a comprehensive list of all stone-built castles in Britain, ordered by the commencement of their construction, is challenging due to the vast number of such structures and the often incomplete historical records. However, I can provide a chronological overview of some of the earliest and most notable stone castles, along with their construction dates and locations:

Tower of London

Construction began in 1078 under William the Conqueror. Located in London, England, it served as a royal palace and fortress.

Colchester Castle

Built between 1076 and 1100, it is one of the largest Norman keeps in Europe. Situated in Colchester, Essex, England.

Rochester Castle

Construction commenced around 1087. Located in Rochester, Kent, England, it boasts one of the best-preserved keeps in England.

Durham Castle

Built starting in 1072 as a projection of Norman power in the north. Situated in Durham, England, it now forms part of Durham University.

Chepstow Castle

Construction began in 1067, making it one of the earliest stone castles in Wales. Located in Chepstow, Monmouthshire, Wales.

Norwich Castle

Built between 1067 and 1075 under William the Conqueror. Situated in Norwich, Norfolk, England, it was intended as a royal palace but primarily served as a military fortification.

Lincoln Castle

Construction commenced in 1068 on the site of a pre-existing Roman fortress. Located in Lincoln, Lincolnshire, England, it has two mottes, a unique feature among English castles.

These examples highlight the early phase of stone castle construction in Britain, primarily initiated by the Normans following their conquest in 1066. The transition from timber to stone fortifications marked a significant evolution in medieval military architecture, emphasizing durability and defense.

For a more exhaustive and detailed list, consulting specialized historical records or databases focused on British castles would be necessary.

List in Order of Construction All Stone Castles in Europe

Compiling an exhaustive list of all stone-built castles in Europe, ordered by their construction dates, is challenging due to the vast number of such structures and the often incomplete historical records. However, I can provide a chronological overview of some of the earliest and most notable stone castles across Europe:

Château de Doué-la-Fontaine

Constructed around 950 AD in France, it is considered one of the oldest known stone castles in Europe.

Landsberg Castle

Built around 1000 AD in Germany, it showcases early medieval stone fortification techniques.

Tower of London

Construction began in 1078 under William the Conqueror. Located in London, England, it served as a royal palace and fortress.

Rochester Castle

Construction commenced around 1087. Located in Rochester, Kent, England, it boasts one of the best-preserved keeps in England.

Hohensalzburg Fortress

Initiated in 1077 in Austria, it is one of the largest medieval castles in Europe.

Windsor Castle

Construction began in the late 11th century in England. It is the longest-occupied palace in Europe.

Alcázar of Segovia

Built in the early 12th century in Spain, it is renowned for its distinctive ship-like shape.

These examples highlight the early phase of stone castle construction in Europe, reflecting the transition from wooden fortifications to more durable stone structures during the medieval period. For a more comprehensive and detailed list, consulting specialized historical records or databases focused on European castles would be necessary.

List In Order of Construction All Stone Castles in Mediterranean and Middle East

Compiling a comprehensive, chronological list of all stone-built castles in the Mediterranean and Near East is challenging due to the vast number of such structures and the often incomplete historical records. However, I can provide an overview of some of the earliest and most notable stone castles in these regions, along with their approximate construction dates and locations:

Citadel of Aleppo

Located in Aleppo, Syria, this ancient fortress has origins dating back to at least the 3rd millennium BCE. The current stone structure was significantly developed during the Ayyubid period in the 12th century.

Krak des Chevaliers

Situated near Homs, Syria, this castle was originally built in 1031 and later expanded by the Knights Hospitaller in the 12th century, becoming one of the most notable Crusader castles.

Kerak Castle

Located in modern-day Jordan, construction began in the 1140s under Pagan the Butler, a Crusader lord. It became a significant stronghold in the region.

Montreal (Shoubak) Castle

Also in Jordan, this castle was constructed in 1115 by Baldwin I of Jerusalem to secure the road from Damascus to Egypt.

Citadel of Cairo

Built between 1176 and 1183 by Salah ad-Din (Saladin) in Cairo, Egypt, it served as the center of Egyptian government for centuries.

Alcazaba of Almería

Located in Almería, Spain, this fortress was initiated in 955 AD during the reign of Abd al-Rahman III, serving as a defensive stronghold for the region.

Palace of the Grand Master of the Knights of Rhodes

Situated on the island of Rhodes in Greece, this castle was originally built in the late 7th century as a Byzantine citadel and later transformed by the Knights Hospitaller in the 14th century.

These examples highlight the rich history of stone castle construction in the Mediterranean and Near East, reflecting the diverse cultural and political influences that shaped the region over centuries. For a more exhaustive and detailed list, consulting specialized historical records or databases focused on castles in these regions would be necessary.

What is the First Stone Castle in the World?

The title of the “first stone-built castle in the world” is difficult to attribute to a specific structure due to the gradual evolution of fortified settlements and the lack of precise historical records. However, one of the earliest known examples of a stone-built fortress-like structure is the Citadel of Aleppo in Syria. Its origins date back to at least the 3rd millennium BCE, making it one of the oldest fortifications in the world. The current structure, however, largely reflects medieval and later renovations.

In the context of medieval castles, Château de Doué-la-Fontaine in France (built around 950 AD) is often cited as one of the earliest stone-built castles in Europe, marking the transition from wooden motte-and-bailey designs to stone fortifications.

When did people begin building Wooden Castles?

Wooden castles, typically in the form of motte-and-bailey structures, began appearing in Europe around the 9th and 10th centuries AD. These early castles were built primarily for defense and served as the strongholds of local lords or rulers during the feudal period.

Key Points in the Development of Wooden Castles:

1. Early Fortifications (Pre-10th Century):

Before castles, wooden stockades and hill forts (prehistoric or Roman designs) were used for protection. Examples include Celtic hill forts in Britain and Roman wooden palisades.

2. Emergence of Motte-and-Bailey Castles (10th Century):

• First built in Normandy and then spread across Europe.

• The motte was a raised earth mound topped with a wooden keep.

• The bailey was an enclosed courtyard surrounded by wooden palisades and often a ditch.

• These were quick to construct and cost-effective, making them ideal for establishing control over territories.

3. Norman Conquest of England (1066):

• The Normans introduced motte-and-bailey castles to England after the Battle of Hastings.

• Examples: Pevensey Castle (initially wooden) and Windsor Castle (began as a wooden structure).

4. Transition to Stone (11th Century):

By the late 11th century, wooden castles began to be replaced or reinforced with stone for greater durability and fire resistance.

Why Wood?

• Wood was abundant, easy to work with, and allowed for rapid construction.

• Wooden castles were often temporary or transitional structures, used to quickly establish dominance while more permanent stone castles were being planned.

Map the spread of Wooden Castle Technology

and

Map the spread of Stone Castle Technology

Mapping the spread of wooden and stone castle technologies requires understanding their historical development and cultural diffusion across regions. Here’s a breakdown of both:

Spread of Wooden Castle Technology

Wooden castles, primarily motte-and-bailey designs, spread across Europe starting in the 9th century and peaked in the 11th century:

1. Origins in the Carolingian Empire (France, 9th Century)

• Wooden motte-and-bailey castles first appeared in Normandy and the Loire Valley.

• Used to establish local control in a fragmented feudal society.

2. Expansion to England and Wales (11th Century)

• Following the Norman Conquest of 1066, the Normans rapidly built wooden motte-and-bailey castles to secure their hold on England and later Wales.

• Example: Windsor Castle started as a wooden structure.

3. Introduction to Ireland and Scotland (12th Century)

• Anglo-Normans brought motte-and-bailey designs to Ireland during their invasions.

• Scotland adopted similar fortifications during this period.

4. Adoption in Eastern Europe (12th–13th Century)

• Similar wooden fortifications spread to Poland, Hungary, and other parts of Central and Eastern Europe as feudal systems took hold.

5. Decline in Use (13th Century)

• Wooden castles were gradually replaced by stone due to increased sieges and the need for fire-resistant, durable defenses.

Spread of Stone Castle Technology

Stone castles began appearing in the 10th century and became widespread by the 12th century, spreading with the influence of feudalism and military campaigns:

1. Early Stone Fortresses (Mediterranean, 9th–10th Century)

• Stone castles appeared first in the Byzantine Empire and Islamic Caliphates, such as the Citadel of Aleppo.

• Early European examples include Château de Doué-la-Fontaine in France (950 AD).

2. Norman Expansion (11th Century)

• Stone castles spread from Normandy to England and Wales after 1066.

• Examples: Tower of London (1078) and Rochester Castle (1087).

• The Crusades (late 11th century) introduced European stone castle designs to the Holy Land.

3. The Crusader States (12th Century)

• Crusaders constructed massive stone fortresses in the Near East, such as Krak des Chevaliers (Syria) and Kerak Castle (Jordan).

4. Spread Across Europe (12th–13th Century)

• Stone castles became widespread in France, Spain, Germany, and Italy as feudal powers strengthened.

• Concentric designs, developed by Edward I in the late 13th century, appeared in Wales and influenced broader European trends.

5. Eastern Europe and the Balkans (12th–14th Century)

• Stone castle construction spread to Hungary, Poland, and the Balkans as medieval kingdoms solidified their borders.

6. Decline of Castle-Building (15th–16th Century)

• With the advent of gunpowder and cannons, castles began to lose their defensive role, evolving into palaces and fortifications.

Mapping the Spread

To visually map these trends:

Wooden Castles:

• Start with the Carolingian heartlands in Western Europe (France).

• Spread through Normandy, England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland.

• Move eastward into Central and Eastern Europe by the 12th century.

Stone Castles:

• Begin in the Mediterranean (Byzantine Empire, Islamic Caliphates).

• Spread to France and England by the 10th–11th centuries.

• Follow Crusader routes to the Near East (12th century).

• Radiate across Western and Central Europe into Eastern Europe by the 13th century.

The History and Development of Wooden and Stone Castles in the Orient 

The development of wooden and stone castles in the Orient (encompassing East Asia, Southeast Asia, and parts of the Middle East) reflects a rich history shaped by cultural, environmental, and technological factors. Unlike Europe, where castles evolved primarily for feudal control and military defense, fortifications in the Orient often combined defense with ceremonial, political, and religious functions.

Wooden Castles in the Orient

Wood was a common construction material in many parts of the Orient due to its availability, ease of use, and the region’s building traditions.

East Asia (China, Japan, Korea)

1. China:

• Early Chinese fortifications (circa 2000 BCE) included wooden palisades around villages and cities.

• By the Zhou Dynasty (1046–256 BCE), rammed earth and timber walls became common for city defenses.

• The transition to stone or brick was slow, with wooden elements remaining dominant in architecture, even in fortifications like watchtowers.

2. Japan:

• Early fortifications (Yayoi period, 300 BCE–300 CE) consisted of wooden palisades around settlements.

• By the Sengoku period (15th–17th centuries), Japanese castles (shiro) often incorporated wooden keeps atop stone bases (e.g., Himeji Castle).

• Wood remained significant in construction due to cultural preferences and seismic activity.

3. Korea:

• Wooden fortifications were used during the Three Kingdoms period (57 BCE–668 CE).

• The Korean Peninsula later transitioned to stone and earth-based fortifications, especially for mountain fortresses.

Stone Castles in the Orient

Stone was used more selectively in the Orient due to the availability of materials, cultural preferences, and construction techniques.

East Asia (China, Japan, Korea)

1. China:

• Stone fortifications date back to the Great Wall of China (7th century BCE, originally rammed earth and later stone and brick).

• City walls, such as those of Xi’an (Tang Dynasty, 618–907 CE), combined stone with other materials.

• Castles per se were rare; instead, fortified cities and palaces served defensive purposes.

2. Japan:

• The stone foundations of shiro (castles) became prominent during the Sengoku period.

• Examples: Matsumoto Castle and Osaka Castle.

• Castles combined stone bases with wooden superstructures, reflecting Japan’s seismic challenges and aesthetic traditions.

3. Korea:

• Stone mountain fortresses (e.g., Namhansanseong) became prominent during the Goryeo (918–1392) and Joseon (1392–1897) periods.

• These were designed to protect against invasions, especially from Mongols and Manchus.

South Asia (India, Sri Lanka)

1. Wooden Fortifications:

• Early Indian forts (durga or garh) were built using timber, mud, and bamboo.

• Examples date back to the Vedic period (1500–500 BCE).

2. Stone Fortifications:

• By the Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE), stone replaced wood in fortifications.

• Examples: Pataliputra’s city walls and the hill forts of Rajasthan (e.g., Chittorgarh).

• The Vijayanagara Empire (14th–17th centuries) perfected stone fortifications with unique defensive features like angled bastions.

Southeast Asia (Cambodia, Thailand, Vietnam)

1. Wooden Fortifications:

• Early fortifications were primarily wooden, influenced by tropical climates and the abundance of timber.

• Palisades and wooden watchtowers were common in kingdoms like Funan (1st–6th centuries CE).

2. Stone Fortifications:

• The Khmer Empire (9th–15th centuries) introduced monumental stone structures, such as Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom, which served both defensive and ceremonial purposes.

• In Vietnam, stone citadels like the Hồ Dynasty Citadel (14th century) emerged.

The Middle East (Near East)

1. Wooden Fortifications:

• Early fortifications in Mesopotamia (circa 3000 BCE) used mudbrick and timber for walls and towers.

• Wooden elements, such as gates and palisades, were common in city defenses.

2. Stone Fortifications:

• By the 2nd millennium BCE, stone became the dominant material for fortresses and citadels.

• Examples: Citadel of Aleppo (modern Syria) and Hattusa (capital of the Hittite Empire).

• Islamic architecture during the Abbasid and later periods (8th–13th centuries) continued the tradition of using stone in citadels and castles.

Key Differences Between the Orient and Europe

1. Material Preference:

• The Orient often relied on timber or rammed earth, especially in regions prone to earthquakes or with limited stone availability.

• Stone was reserved for monumental structures or specific defensive needs.

2. Functionality:

• Castles in the Orient often served as political or ceremonial centers in addition to their military roles.

• In contrast, European castles were primarily military strongholds before evolving into residences.

3. Design:

• Oriental castles integrated aesthetic and spiritual elements (e.g., feng shui in Chinese architecture).

• European castles prioritized military efficiency.

 

The History of Castle Building in Africa and Egypt

The history of castle building in Africa, including Egypt, reflects the diverse cultural, geographical, and historical contexts of the continent. Fortifications in Africa were shaped by the needs of local kingdoms, colonial powers, and trade networks. Here’s an overview:

Castle Building in Egypt

Ancient Fortifications

Egypt’s architectural traditions focused on temples, pyramids, and cities rather than castles in the European sense. However, Egypt had fortified structures to protect against invaders and control trade routes.

1. Early Fortifications (c. 3000 BCE):

• The earliest fortifications were mudbrick structures built to protect settlements.

• Examples: The walls of Hierakonpolis (c. 3500 BCE).

2. Middle Kingdom Fortresses (c. 2000–1700 BCE):

• Pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom (e.g., Senusret III) constructed massive stone fortresses to secure Egypt’s southern border in Nubia.

• Examples: Buhen Fortress (near modern Sudan) had stone walls, bastions, and defensive ditches.

3. New Kingdom Expansion (c. 1500–1100 BCE):

• Fortifications were built to control conquered territories in Nubia and the Levant.

• Examples: Fortresses at Tell el-Habua and Tell el-Amarna.

4. Later Periods:

• During the Ptolemaic (332–30 BCE) and Roman periods, Egyptian fortifications transitioned to stone and included Hellenistic design elements.

Medieval Fortifications and Citadels

1. Islamic Egypt (7th–16th Centuries):

• The introduction of Islam in the 7th century transformed Egypt’s architectural landscape.

• Fortified cities like Fustat (Cairo’s predecessor) were surrounded by walls.

2. Saladin’s Citadel (12th Century):

• Built by Salah ad-Din (Saladin) in 1176, the Citadel of Cairo is one of Egypt’s most famous medieval fortresses.

• It served as a military stronghold and administrative center.

3. Mamluk Period (13th–16th Centuries):

• The Mamluks constructed smaller fortresses to protect trade routes and cities.

Castle Building in Sub-Saharan Africa

In Sub-Saharan Africa, fortifications were built using local materials like mudbrick, wood, and later stone, depending on regional resources and needs. Castles in this region often served as administrative, ceremonial, and defensive centers.

West Africa

1. Ancient City Walls (c. 500 BCE–1500 CE):

• West African kingdoms like the Nok, Benin, and Mali constructed fortified cities with earthen walls.

• Examples:

• Great Walls of Benin (800–1400 CE): Enclosing the Benin Kingdom, these walls were among the largest earthworks in the world.

• Djenné-Djenno (c. 250 BCE): Fortified urban settlement in Mali.

2. European Influence (15th–19th Centuries):

• The arrival of Portuguese, Dutch, and British colonial powers led to the construction of stone fortresses and castles along the West African coast.

• Examples:

• Elmina Castle (Ghana, 1482): Built by the Portuguese, it was the first European stone fortress in sub-Saharan Africa.

• Cape Coast Castle (Ghana, 1653): A major hub for the transatlantic slave trade.

East Africa

1. Swahili Coast (7th–16th Centuries):

• City-states like Kilwa Kisiwani and Zanzibar constructed fortified palaces and walls to protect against pirates and rival traders.

• Example: Kilwa Fort (Tanzania, 13th century).

2. Ethiopia:

• The Ethiopian Empire (Aksumite and later Solomonic dynasties) built fortified churches, palaces, and castles.

• Example: Fasil Ghebbi (Gondar, 17th century): A UNESCO World Heritage site, it includes stone castles blending Ethiopian, Portuguese, and Indian influences.

Castle Building in North Africa (Outside Egypt)

North Africa shares architectural traditions with the Islamic world and Mediterranean influences.

1. Berber Fortifications (Before Islam):

• Early Berber communities in the Maghreb built fortified villages called ksars (e.g., Aït Benhaddou in Morocco).

2. Islamic Fortresses (7th–15th Centuries):

• Arab rulers and later the Almoravid and Almohad dynasties constructed stone fortresses to control cities and trade routes.

• Examples:

• Casbah of Algiers (Algeria).

• Qal’at Bani Hammad (Algeria, 11th century).

3. Colonial Fortifications (15th–19th Centuries):

• The Ottomans built fortresses to defend against European incursions.

• European powers later constructed forts during colonial occupations.

Comparative Notes

• Egypt: Focused on monumental fortifications for border control and city protection. Later, citadels like Cairo’s served as administrative centers.

• Sub-Saharan Africa: Fortifications often used earth and mudbrick, transitioning to stone during European influence or in unique cases like Gondar.

• North Africa: Integrated Islamic and Berber traditions, with ksars and later Ottoman-style citadels.

Taking all of the above into account, list in order of construction with dates all the castles in the world.

Creating a comprehensive list of all castles in the world in chronological order with dates is a monumental task due to the sheer number of fortifications built across different regions and time periods. Additionally, the definition of a “castle” varies between cultures—ranging from early walled settlements to stone palaces, and later medieval strongholds.

Instead of listing every castle, here’s a curated chronological list of notable castles or fortifications that represent key developments in global castle architecture:

Prehistoric and Early Fortifications

1. Citadel of Aleppo (Syria) – 3rd millennium BCE

One of the world’s oldest fortified structures, continuously occupied and developed over millennia.

2. Fortifications of Buhen (Egypt) – c. 1860 BCE

A Middle Kingdom Egyptian stone fortress along the Nile.

3. Hattusa Walls (Turkey) – c. 1600 BCE

Fortifications of the Hittite capital, featuring massive stone walls and gates.

Classical Period Fortifications

4. Great Wall of China (First Sections) – c. 700 BCE

Initially made of earth and wood, later rebuilt with stone and brick during the Ming Dynasty.

5. Masada (Israel) – c. 37–31 BCE

A fortified complex built by King Herod in Judea, using stone for both defense and luxury.

Medieval Castles (500–1500 CE)

6. Château de Doué-la-Fontaine (France) – c. 950 CE

One of Europe’s earliest stone castles, built during the early medieval period.

7. Windsor Castle (England) – 1070 CE

Originally built as a wooden motte-and-bailey, later transformed into a stone fortress and royal residence.

8. Krak des Chevaliers (Syria) – 1142 CE

A Crusader castle that epitomizes medieval military architecture in the Near East.

9. Himeji Castle (Japan) – 1333 CE

A wooden castle built on a stone base, reflecting Japanese castle-building traditions.

Islamic Fortifications (7th–15th Centuries)

10. Citadel of Cairo (Egypt) – 1176 CE

Built by Saladin, this stone fortress served as a military and administrative hub.

11. Alhambra (Spain) – 1238 CE

A Moorish palace-fortress in Granada, combining defensive and aesthetic elements.

Renaissance to Early Modern Castles (1500–1800 CE)

12. Elmina Castle (Ghana) – 1482 CE

The first European stone fortress in sub-Saharan Africa, built by the Portuguese.

13. Fasil Ghebbi (Ethiopia) – 1636 CE

A unique African castle complex blending Ethiopian and European influences.

Post-Medieval and Colonial Era Fortifications (1500–1900 CE)

14. Osaka Castle (Japan) – 1583 CE

Built during the Sengoku period, incorporating stone walls and wooden superstructures.

15. Cape Coast Castle (Ghana) – 1653 CE

A British colonial fortress significant to the transatlantic slave trade.

Key Notes

1. The timeline focuses on fortifications representative of regional and architectural milestones.

2. The definition of “castle” varies across cultures; some entries include city walls, forts, and palaces.

3. For more exhaustive coverage, individual regions (e.g., Europe, the Middle East, Africa) require separate detailed lists.