Ur-Fascism
Umberto Eco’s Framework of Ur-Fascism: An Analytical Application to Distinguishing Far-Right from Center-Right Politics
Abstract
Umberto Eco’s 1995 essay “Ur-Fascism” (also known as “Eternal Fascism: Fourteen Ways of Looking at a Blackshirt”) provides a seminal, non-systematic checklist of 14 typical features that characterize fascist or proto-fascist ideologies. Eco, drawing from his experiences under Mussolini’s regime, emphasized that fascism is a “fuzzy” phenomenon: not all traits need be present simultaneously, and even one can allow fascist tendencies to “coagulate.” This paper explicates Eco’s 14 points in detail and applies them to contemporary political spectra. It argues that high alignment with multiple traits—particularly irrationalism, anti-modernism, fear of difference, selective populism, and contempt for the weak—correctly identifies actors or movements as far-right in the fascist-adjacent sense. Lower or partial alignment may characterize center-right conservatism (e.g., traditionalism without rejection of rational discourse or parliamentary legitimacy), while minimal alignment aligns with centrist or mainstream positions. The spectrum exhibits overlaps: center-right shares some conservative appeals with far-right (e.g., national pride), just as center-right overlaps with centrism (e.g., market liberalism). Distinguishing these requires assessing the intensity, combination, and behavioural implications of Eco’s traits.
Table of Contents
1. Introduction to Eco’s Ur-Fascism
2. The 14 Typical Features of Ur-Fascism
3. Application to Political Spectra: Far-Right, Center-Right, and Centrist Distinctions
4. Overlaps and Thresholds for Classification
1. Introduction to Eco’s Ur-Fascism
In his influential essay, Umberto Eco warned that fascism rarely reappears in pure historical form but manifests through “innocent disguises.” He rejected rigid definitions, noting fascism’s contradictory nature, yet identified recurring patterns from historical examples (Italian Fascism, Nazism) and potential revivals. The 14 features serve as diagnostic tools: presence of several indicates Ur-Fascist tendencies. This framework remains widely applied in political analysis to identify authoritarian nationalist movements on the right.
2. The 14 Typical Features of Ur-Fascism
Eco’s list, as detailed in his essay, includes:
1. The cult of tradition — Syncretism of disparate traditional elements (e.g., combining occultism, ancient myths, and selective religious texts), risking contradiction, as truth is seen as already revealed.
2. The rejection of modernism — Irrationalism viewing Enlightenment rationalism and modernity as depravity, while sometimes embracing technology for power.
3. The cult of action for action’s sake — Irrationalism prizing action over reflection; intellectualism is suspect.
4. Disagreement is treason — Critical discourse is devalued; dissent betrays the group.
5. Fear of difference — Racism by definition; appeal against “intruders” or outsiders.
6. Appeal to a frustrated middle class — Mobilization of those facing economic crisis, humiliation, or status anxiety.
7. Obsession with a plot — Conspiracy theories, often international, as root of psychology.
8. The enemy is at the same time too strong and too weak — Paradoxical portrayal of foes as omnipotent yet defeatable.
9. Pacifism is trafficking with the enemy — Life as permanent struggle; heroism tied to combat.
10. Contempt for the weak — Elitism married to chauvinism; in-group superiority over outsiders and underlings.
11. Everybody is educated to become a hero — Cult of death and machismo; impatience with ordinary life.
12. Machismo and weaponry — Transfer of will to power to sexual matters; disdain for women and non-conformity.
13. Selective populism — Qualitative (not quantitative) populism; the “People” as monolithic entity against rotten parliamentarism.
14. Newspeak — Impoverished vocabulary and syntax to limit critical reasoning.
These are not exhaustive or contradictory-free but diagnostic when clustered.
3. Application to Political Spectra: Far-Right, Center-Right, and Centrist Distinctions
Eco’s traits align strongly with far-right ideologies when present in high intensity and combination. Far-right movements (e.g., certain populist-nationalist parties or extremist groups) often exhibit multiple traits: rejection of modernism, fear of difference (anti-immigrant rhetoric), selective populism (doubting parliamentary legitimacy), obsession with plots, and appeal to frustrated classes.
In contrast, center-right politics (e.g., mainstream conservative parties emphasizing tradition, free markets, and national identity without extremism) may show partial overlap—such as cult of tradition (valuing cultural heritage) or appeal to middle-class stability—but typically rejects irrationalism, disagreement-as-treason, contempt for the weak, and Newspeak. Center-right accepts rational debate, parliamentary processes, and pluralism.
Centrism (e.g., moderate liberal or social-democratic positions) shows minimal alignment, perhaps only mild traditionalism in cultural matters, but embraces modernism, disagreement as healthy, and inclusive populism.
High scoring (e.g., 8+ traits prominently) → correctly identified as far-right (fascist-adjacent or Ur-Fascist).
Low-to-moderate scoring (e.g., 2-4 traits mildly) → not far-right; likely center-right or centrist.
4. Overlaps and Thresholds for Classification
Political spectra are continuous, not discrete:
• Far-right ↔ Center-right overlap — Both may appeal to national tradition or middle-class frustrations, but far-right escalates to irrationalism, conspiracy obsession, and anti-pluralism.
• Center-right ↔ Centrist overlap — Both support liberal institutions and rational discourse; center-right adds conservative cultural emphases without authoritarian drift.
Thresholds are qualitative: Does the ideology glorify perpetual struggle and contempt for weakness? Does it portray enemies paradoxically and limit critical language? High-intensity combinations cross into far-right territory. Eco’s framework aids nuance, avoiding overuse of “fascist” while highlighting risks.
5. Conclusion
Eco’s 14 features offer a practical, flexible tool for identifying Ur-Fascist tendencies without essentializing fascism. Individuals or movements scoring highly across the traits—especially in irrationalism, anti-difference, selective populism, and anti-weakness—are appropriately labeled far-right in the authoritarian nationalist sense. Lower scores distinguish center-right conservatism (sharing some values but committed to democratic norms) from centrism. This graduated approach promotes precise analysis in polarized times, urging vigilance against disguised authoritarianism while respecting ideological diversity.
Index of Key Sources (by Title and Author)
• Ur-Fascism (or Eternal Fascism: Fourteen Ways of Looking at a Blackshirt) by Umberto Eco
• Definitions of Fascism (Wikipedia entry summarizing scholarly views, including Eco)
• The 14 Characteristics of Fascism: Umberto Eco on Ur-Fascism by Joshua P. Steele
• Umberto Eco Lists The 14 Common Features of The Eternal Fascist (Flashbak compilation)
• Ur-Fascism by Umberto Eco (The Anarchist Library edition)
• Umberto Eco’s List of the 14 Common Features of Fascism (Open Culture)
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