Jealousy and Envy

 

Jealousy and Envy: A Psychological Analysis of Causes, Motives, Impacts, and Coping Strategies

Abstract

Jealousy and envy are often used interchangeably in everyday language, yet psychology distinguishes them sharply. This paper explores envy (the painful desire for another’s advantages) and its close counterpart jealousy (fear of loss to a rival), integrating theoretical frameworks, empirical research, and sociocultural insights. The paper analyzes their psychological underpinnings, developmental roots, evolutionary functions, effects on interpersonal and communal dynamics, signs of manifestation in self and others, and clinically supported coping mechanisms. The aim is to promote self-awareness, prosocial resilience, and emotional maturity in personal and collective contexts.

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1. Definitions and Theoretical Frameworks

1.1 Envy vs. Jealousy

In psychological literature, envy refers to a reaction to another person’s superior qualities, achievements, or possessions, with a desire to either acquire them or strip them from the other. Jealousy, conversely, involves a fear of losing something (often a relationship or status) to a rival.

Parrott & Smith (1993) define envy as arising when a person lacks another’s superior quality, achievement, or possession and either desires it or wishes the other lacked it.

Salovey & Rodin (1984) differentiate jealousy as a triadic emotion involving oneself, a valued other, and a rival.

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2. Psychological Origins and Causes

2.1 Evolutionary Psychology

Evolutionary theories posit envy and jealousy as adaptive mechanisms.

• Buss (2000) describes jealousy as a mate-guarding emotion, evolved to protect reproductive investment.

• Hill & Buss (2008) assert envy motivates social comparison and status-seeking behaviors to enhance mate value.

2.2 Developmental Psychology

• Envy emerges as early as 18–24 months (Masciuch & Kienapple, 1993), suggesting it is a basic social emotion.

• Sibling rivalry is one of the earliest expressions of envy, linked to parental attention and resource competition (Dunn & Kendrick, 1982).

2.3 Social Comparison Theory

• Festinger (1954): Envy is intensified when individuals compare themselves to similar others perceived as more successful or happier.

• Social media platforms exacerbate this, creating artificial standards of success, beauty, or popularity.

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3. Motives Underlying Envy

3.1 Inferiority and Self-Esteem

• Smith & Kim (2007) found that low self-esteem correlates with chronic envy.

• Envy often functions as a self-assessment threat, activating defense mechanisms like devaluation or disparagement.

3.2 Justice and Fairness Perceptions

• Ben-Ze’ev (1992): Envy is heightened when the success of the other is seen as undeserved or unfair.

• This triggers moral indignation, even righteous anger, as seen in economic and political contexts (Fiske, 2011).

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4. Impact on Interpersonal and Communal Dynamics

4.1 Toxic Envy and Community Breakdown

• Envy can erode trust, create rivalry, and lead to social sabotage (Vecchio, 2005).

• In group settings, envy often results in schadenfreude—pleasure at another’s misfortune (Smith et al., 1996), which corrodes cohesion.

4.2 Organizational and Workplace Implications

• Duffy et al. (2012) showed envy predicted workplace incivility and counterproductive behaviors.

• Organizational envy can spread subtly, influencing culture and morale.

4.3 Cultural Amplification

• Individualist societies, which emphasize competition and status, tend to evoke more envy than collectivist cultures (Heider, 1991).

• Consumer capitalism, advertising, and curated digital life promote aspirational discontent, feeding chronic envy.

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5. Identifying Envy in Self and Others

5.1 Markers in the Self

• Feelings of resentment, inferiority, or preoccupation with others’ success.

• Self-talk such as “Why them and not me?” or feelings of “It’s not fair.”

5.2 Markers in Others

• Passive aggression, gossip, dismissiveness toward others’ success.

• Disguised envy often manifests in undermining behavior, non-celebratory reactions, or backhanded compliments.

Lange & Crusius (2015) differentiate benign envy (motivates self-improvement) from malicious envy (motivates harm or devaluation).

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6. Coping with Envy and Jealousy

6.1 In the Self

a. Cognitive Reframing

• Practicing gratitude and focusing on one’s own journey can reorient envy into admiration or inspiration (Emmons & McCullough, 2003).

b. Self-Compassion

• Neff (2003): Self-compassion mitigates envy by reducing harsh self-judgment and promoting emotional resilience.

c. Goal Setting

• Redirecting energy from rumination to action helps convert envy into motivation (Crusius & Mussweiler, 2012).

6.2 In Others

a. Disarming Discreetly

• Avoid boasting; practice humility and empathy when sharing successes (Exline & Lobel, 1999).

• Validate others’ emotions when sensing envy, without assuming malicious intent.

b. Boundaries and Emotional Hygiene

• If targeted by malicious envy, setting boundaries and limiting exposure to toxic dynamics is essential (Hogan & Hogan, 2001).

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7. Positive Functions of Envy

While often viewed negatively, envy can be prosocial or motivational:

• Benign envy encourages personal development.

• In relationships, jealousy may alert individuals to emotional distance or threats to intimacy, prompting corrective actions.

As Nietzsche noted, envy is not inherently evil; it is a measure of what we value. The danger lies in how we act on it.

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8. Clinical and Social Implications

• Unaddressed envy contributes to depression, anxiety, and interpersonal dysfunction (Smith & Kim, 2007).

• In psychotherapy, envy is often tied to deeper issues: identity, insecurity, narcissistic injury, or early attachment wounds (Klein, 1957; Kohut, 1971).

• Community initiatives that focus on shared values, recognition, and cooperation can reduce envy’s corrosive effects and build empathy.

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Conclusion

Envy and jealousy are natural human emotions with deep evolutionary and social roots. Left unchecked, they can damage relationships and social cohesion; when understood and managed, they can be powerful motivators for self-awareness and growth. A culture of emotional literacy, empathy, and honest self-reflection offers the best antidote to the harmful effects of these complex emotions.

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Index of Sources

1. Ben-Ze’ev, A. (1992). Envy and Inequality. Journal of Philosophy.

2. Buss, D. M. (2000). The Dangerous Passion: Why Jealousy is as Necessary as Love and Sex. Free Press.

3. Crusius, J., & Mussweiler, T. (2012). When people want what others have: The impulsive side of envious desire. Emotion.

4. Duffy, M. K., Scott, K. L., Shaw, J. D., Tepper, B. J., & Aquino, K. (2012). A social context model of envy and social undermining. Academy of Management Journal.

5. Dunn, J., & Kendrick, C. (1982). Siblings: Love, envy, and understanding. Harvard University Press.

6. Emmons, R. A., & McCullough, M. E. (2003). Counting blessings versus burdens: An experimental investigation of gratitude and subjective well-being in daily life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.

7. Exline, J. J., & Lobel, M. (1999). The perils of outperformance: Sensitivity about being the target of a threatening upward comparison. Psychological Bulletin.

8. Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations.

9. Fiske, S. T. (2011). Envy up, scorn down: How status divides us. Russell Sage Foundation.

10. Heider, F. (1991). The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations. Wiley.

11. Hill, S. E., & Buss, D. M. (2008). The evolution of self-esteem. Evolution and Human Behavior.

12. Hogan, R., & Hogan, J. (2001). Assessing leadership: A view from the dark side. International Journal of Selection and Assessment.

13. Klein, M. (1957). Envy and Gratitude and Other Works. Hogarth Press.

14. Kohut, H. (1971). The Analysis of the Self. International Universities Press.

15. Lange, J., & Crusius, J. (2015). Dispositional envy revisited: Unraveling the motivational dynamics of benign and malicious envy. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin.

16. Masciuch, S., & Kienapple, K. (1993). The emergence of jealousy in children 4–6 years old. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships.

17. Neff, K. D. (2003). Self-compassion: An alternative conceptualization of a healthy attitude toward oneself. Self and Identity.

18. Parrott, W. G., & Smith, R. H. (1993). Distinguishing the experiences of envy and jealousy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.

19. Salovey, P., & Rodin, J. (1984). Some antecedents and consequences of social-comparison jealousy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.

20. Smith, R. H., & Kim, S. H. (2007). Comprehending envy. Psychological Bulletin.

21. Smith, R. H., Turner, T. J., Garonzik, R., Leach, C. W., Urch-Druskat, V., & Weston, C. M. (1996). Envy and schadenfreude. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin.

22. Vecchio, R. P. (2005). Explorations in employee envy: Feeling envious and feeling envied. Cognition & Emotion.